The Insurable Interest Doctrine- Indian Perspective

DR. RAM MANOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY ______________________________________________________________________________ The Insurable Interest Doctrine __________________________________________________________________ Name: Sukriti Guha Roll No. : 142 Semester: VIIIth Class: B. A. , LL. B. (Hons. ) Subject: Insurance Law Submitted to: Ms.Aparna Singh TABLE OF CONTENTS I. Introduction II. Can there be any valid insurance agreement without insurable interest? III. Creation of insurable interest IV. Wager and insurance V. Types of insurable interest VI. Time or duration of insurable interest VII. Insurable interest vis-a-vis life insurance contract VIII. Insurable interest vis-a-vis marine insurance contract IX. Insurable interest vis-a-vis fire insurance contract X. Conclusion Bibliography I. INTRODUCTION The aim of insurance is to shift risk from one person (the insured) to another (the insurers).In insurance contract as a matter of public policy, certain insurable require ments must be met, to make it valid. Insurable interest is one of the basic requirements of the insurance. Without it the insurance contract is a mere wagering agreement. In India it is strange that the Insurance Act 1938 does not contain a definition of insurable interest. The only section, namely section 68, which makes a passing reference to the words ‘insurable interest’ stands repeated by section 48 of The Insurance Amendment Act 1950.Briefly stated there is no legislative guidance in Indian law on the subject but still marine insurance defines under section 7 of the marine insurance act 1963 defines insurable interest. Insurable interest is also defined as a legal right to insure an asset or person. In theory, therefore, nothing more is payable than the amount of actual loss. It follows that unless the assured has a pecuniary interest in the thing insured, no question of loss or indemnity shall arise. A person cannot therefore insure a thing, the loss of which can not cause him any financial loss.A policy of insurance, therefore, is void if the insured has no such pecuniary interest in the subject matter of the insurance. Any person, who would suffer from destruction or loss of a thing, has insurable interest in that thing. The insurable interest must: * Be definite * Be capable of valuation * Be legally valid and subsisting * Involve the loss of legal right * Involve a legal liability II. CAN THERE BE ANY VALID INSURANCE AGREEMENT WITHOUT INSURABLE INTEREST? The existence of insurable interest is an essential ingredient of any insurance contract. It is an important and fundamental principle of insurance.It can be defined as the legal right to insure arising out of a financial relationship recognized under law, between the insured and the subject matter of insurance We find that the meaning of the term insurable interest is liberally interpreted. It is not always the legal interest or a full interest that's required by the courts but it shoul d be such that it would be sufficient if it is recognized by court of law or equity as such interest. The following points may be gathered: 1) The interest should not be a mere sentimental right or interest, for example love and affection alone cannot constitute insurable interest. ) It should be a right in property or a right arising out of a contract in relation to the property. 3) The interest must be pecuniary that is, capable of estimation in terms of money. In other words, the peril must be such that its happening may bring upon the insured an actual or deemed pecuniary loss. Mere disadvantage or inconvenience or mental distress cannot be regarded as an insurable interest but this rule not strictly followed in life insurance cases. 4) The interest must be lawful, that is, it should not be illegal, unlawful, and immoral or opposed to public policy and does not harm any others legal justified claim.In the case of Brahma Dutt v. LIC, one Mukhtar Singh a petty school teacher on sa lary of Rs 20 took a policy for Rs 35,000 on his life making false statements in the proposal and nominated a stranger Brahma Dutt for the policy. The nominee paid the first two quarterly premiums by which time the life insured died. The nominee intimated the insured's death and claimed the sum assured. It was found on evidence that Brahma Dutt had taken the policy without any insurable interest in the life of the deceased for his own benefit and that therefore it was void being a wagering agreement.The Supreme Court in the case of Suraj Mal Ram Niwas Oil Mills (Private) Limited v United India Insurance Company Limited held that the objection of the insurer about the non-disclosure of dispatch of each and every consignment, as pointed by the second surveyor, learned counsel submitted that the said condition has to be understood in the context of the fundamental condition that the insurance cover was intended to secure only the â€Å"insurable interest† of the appellant in the dispatches.It was urged that the appellant had declared only those consignments in which they had an â€Å"insurable interest† as in relation to dispatches which had not been declared, the consignees had desired that their consignments should be dispatched without an insurance cover. In all such cases, the purchasers took the risk of loss to their goods, and hence the appellant had no â€Å"insurable interest† in them, unlike in the consignment in question for which due declaration was made. Reference was made to the decisions of this Court in New India Assurance Co. Ltd v. G. N. Sainani, and New India Assurance Company Limited v.Hira Lal Ramesh Chand , wherein it was held that â€Å"insurable interest† over a property is â€Å"such interest as shall make the loss of the property to cause pecuniary damage to the assured and under this case it will make a damage to the interest of the insured. III. CREATION OF INSURABLE INTEREST There are a number of ways in wh ich insurable interest will arise or can be created. Few main ways are: 1) By Contract -In some contracts a person will agree to be liable for something, which he or she would not ordinarily be liable for. A landlord is normally liable for the maintenance of property he owns rather than the tenants.A lease may, however, make the tenant responsible for the maintenance, repair etc. of the building. Such a contract places the tenant in legally recognized relationship to the building. This gives him an insurable interest, which would not be present if the contract had not been entered into so these kinds of special contractual relationships give arise to the insurable interest on something on which otherwise one does not have any kind of insurable interest. 2) By Common Law – Where the essential elements of insurable interest are automatically present, the same can be described as having arisen at common law.The most straight forward example is ownership. One can own a house, and there is therefore entitlement to insure it equally the common law duty of care which one owes to the other, may give rise to a liability which again is insurable. Like the use or driving of a motor vehicle in a public place is sufficient insurable interest for the purpose of effecting insurance in the favour of the third party. 3) By Statute – Some time an act of parliament will create an insurable interest either by granting some benefit or imposing a duty.While the statute may create insurable interest where none would otherwise exist. There can be some statutes which can restrict liability and thereby also restrict insurable interest. IV. WAGER AND INSURANCE In a contract of wager all the parties do not have any interest in the happening of the event other than the sum. This is what marks the difference between a wagering agreement and a contract of insurance because every contract of insurance requires for its validity the insurable interest. Insurance affected without insurable interest is no more than a wagering agreement and therefore void.Insurable interest means the risk of loss to which the assured is likely to be exposed by the happening of the event assured against. In a wager on the other hand neither party is running any risk of loss except that which is created by the agreement between two or more than two parties. We all also know that wagering is illegal in India and against to the norms of society or in short wagering is against public policy and distinction between a insurance and a wager is this a insurance is properly speaking a contract to indemnify the insured in respect of some interest which he has against perils which he contemplates it will be liable to.In the case of Alamani v. Positive Govt Security Life Insurance Co. , the plaintiff’s husband took a policy of insurance on the life of Mehbub Bi, the wife of a clerk working under him and about a week later got the policy assigned in the favour of the plaintiff, Mehbu b Bi died a month later and the plaintiff as assignee claimed the sum assured and in this case court find that there was no insurable interest present in this case and hence this insurance contract held to be contract of wager and held to be void.V. TYPES OF INSURABLE INTEREST There are basically two types of insurable interest (1) Contractual (2) Statutory. As we have seen in some cases that interest in the subject matter of insurance is required by law itself for the validity of the policy, whether by express statutory law as in the Marine Insurance Act 1906 or as by section 30 of the Indian Contract Act which merely declares that all contracts by way of wager is void. This is the interest required by statue r the statutory shareholder. If this agent is absent, the insurance is illegal or void and no agreement between the parties dispensing with this requirement can be effective. In an action upon such a contract if the insurer does not raise the plea of want of interest neverthel ess the court of its own motion may refuse to enforce the contract. Courts however, lean in favour of the existence of a valid interest as far as possible, so as to render the contract enforceable.It has also been held in some cases that there is nothing illegal about the insurer paying on policy without interest as the objection or want of insurable interest is purely technical and has no real merit as between the insurer and the insured. Let's take a case law in detail that will clear the picture of the difference between these two kinds of insurable interest. In the case Macaura v. Northern Assurance Company, one Macaura insured timber in his estate against fire. He sold timber to a company of which he was the sole substantial shareholder.Thereafter most of the timber was destroyed by fire and he demanded that he should be indemnified. The insurer succeeded in refusing to comply with the demand. The insured had no statutory interest in the assets of the company though too he woul d suffer loss on the company losing its property, nor he had any contractual interest under the policy because he could not prove interest at the time of the loss. Though the insured had no statutory interest the policy was held to be not a wagering contract because even being the sole shareholder he had an interest or better call insurable interest in the property.VI. TIME OR DURATION OF INSURABLE INTEREST The time when the insurable interest must be present varies with the nature of the insurance contracts. The question is whether insurable interest should exist at the time when the contract is formed or should it also continue to exist until it is discharged but as we have seen in life insurance the presence of insurable interest is necessary at the commencement of the policy although it is not necessary afterwards, not even at the time of occurrence of risk.So it should be there in life policies at the time of taking the policy it need not exist at the time when the loss takes p lace or even when the claim is made under the policy. Life insurance contracts are not strictly speaking contracts of indemnity. In fire insurance, it's required both at the commencement of the policy and at the time when the risk occurs. In a sense, therefore it may be said that insurable interest is doubly insisted upon in fire insurance.The insurance interest is necessary at both the times because it is treated as a personal contract and also a contract of indemnity. And even the onus that the fire was intentional is on the insurer and not the insured. In a marine insurance contract the presence of insurable interest is necessary only at the time of the loss. It is immaterial whether he has or does not have any insurable interest at the time when the marine insurance policy was taken. VII.INSURABLE INTEREST vis-a-vis LIFE INSURANCE CONTRACT Life insurance contract is not a contract of indemnity and a person affecting a policy must have an insurable interest in the life to be assu red. In the life insurance policy persons having relationship by marriage (example, husband and wife), blood (example, father and son) or adoption (example, adopted son and his mother), have been recognized as having insurable interest. Few examples of relationship which have insurable interest in the life of other: * Child has the insurable interest in life of parents and vice versa even the illegitimate child. Wife has an insurable interest in the life of husband and vice versa * Debtor has an insurable interest of the life of creditor and vice versa * Master has an insurable interest in the life of servant and vice versa * A company has an insurable interest in the life of manager or director or partners or other employees and vice versa * Husband or wife have a insurable interest in the life of father-in- law or mother in law and vice versa * Insurable interest in the life of grandparents and vice versa * Insurable interest of a person on his own lifeInsurable interest in India need not be confined to a pecuniary interest. Sentimental interest or an interest based on close family relationship may constitute a sufficient insurable interest. The closeness of relationship operates as a protection to the life of the insured and does not place him in the danger of being murdered. But when a person seeks insurance on his own life, the question of insurable interest is immaterial. There can also be no element of wagering, for whatever gain may accrue, will be by his death and that is no gain.No man will gamble on his own life to gain a pyrrhic victory. And if somebody commits suicide to get the benefit of claim for his beneficiary or relatives his claim will not be entertained. VIII. INSURABLE INTEREST VIS-A-VIS MARINE INSURANCE CONTRACT Insurable interest is a special requirement of the marine insurance contract and any valid contract of marine insurance can be entered onto by person only if he has insurable interest in the marine adventure. And what is importan t for insurable interest is that: ) There should be a physical object which is exposed to the marine perils 2) The assured must have some legally recognized relationship with that object in consequences of which he benefits by its preservation and is prejudiced by its loss or damage. Few instances which show insurable interest in a marine insurance policy: 1) The insurer under a contract of marine insurance has an insurable interest in his risk which he may re-insure. 2) The lender of money on bottomry or respondentia has an insurable interest in respect of loan . ) The masters of the crew of a ship have insurable interest in their wages. IX. INSURABLE INTEREST vis-a-vis FIRE INSURANCE CONTRACT Few instances of persons who can have insurable interest in any insured property by fire: 1) Owner of the property , joint owner, sole owner, or a farm owning the property 2) Lessor and lessee both have insurable interest on any property 3) The vendor or the purchaser both have the right 4) T he mortgagor and mortgagee 5) Trustees are legal owners and beneficiaries the beneficial owner of the trust property and each can insure it. ) Bailees such as carriers, pawnbrokers or warehouse men are responsible for the safety of the property entrusted in them and so can insure it. X. CONCLUSION To be legally enforceable, all insurance contracts must be supported by an insurable interest. Insurance contracts must be supported by an insurable interest for the following reasons. * To prevent gambling: Insurable interest is necessary to prevent gambling. If insurable interest is not required, the contract would be gambling contract and would be against public interest. For example you can insure the property of another and hope for an early loss.You can similarly insure the life of another person and hope for an early death. These contracts would be gambling contracts and would be against public interest and public policy and so need to be checked and stopped. * To reduce moral hazar d: Insurable interest reduces moral hazard. If insurable interest is not required, a dishonest person could purchase a property's insurance belonging to someone else and then deliberately cause a loss to receive the proceeds; but if the insured stands to lose financially, nothing is gained by causing the loss.Thus moral hazard is reduced. In life insurance, insurable interest requirement reduces the incentive to murder the insured for the purpose of collecting policy claim or anyone can set fire his home to claim the fire insurance claim or one can kill any third person insured by him. * To measure the amount of the insured's loss in property insured: Finally in property insurance insurable interest measures the amount of the insured's loss. Most of the property insurance is contracts of indemnity and the measure of recovery is the insurable interest of the insured.In the event of loss, payment cannot exceed the amount of one's insurable interest as the principle of indemnity shall apply. The object of insurance in such a case is to indemnify the assured to the extent of the commercial value of the thing lost. It follows that unless the assured has a pecuniary interest in the thing insured, no question of loss or indemnity shall arise. A person cannot therefore, insure a thing, the loss of which cannot cause him any financial loss.A policy of insurance therefore is void if the insured has no such pecuniary interest in the subject matter of insurance. Any person who would suffer from the destruction of loss of a thing has insurable interest in that thing. Therefore, we can conclude that an insurable interest is essential for making any insurance agreement a legally binding insurance contract. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Emmett J. Vaughan & Therese Vaughan, Fundamentals of Risk and Insurance (9th Edn. 2003) 2. Dr. Rakesh Agarwal (Ed. , Guide to Practice of General Insurance (Paper No. 11 of I. I. I. ) (Key for Licentiate Examination), (2nd edition, 2011) 3. Centre of Public ations, Handbook on Opening of Insurance Sector – Policy, Regulations, Guidelines and List of Foreign Companies (2011) 4. H. Narayanan, Indian INSURANCE – A Profile (2008) 5. C. L. Tyagi & Madhu Tyagi, Insurance – Law and Practice (2007) 6. India Brand Equity Foundation http://www. ibef. org/ 7. Investopedia

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Psychological skills training program - Essay Example This makes it constructive to the team. By doing so, you help the team in making corrections so that they are in line with what is important. Therefore, be honest and specify the kind of goal that needs change. Through this, it is easy to open up the team’s imagination so that they can have a clear view about future expectations. After making the critique, be ready to follow up on the issue to avoid future repetition. Through autonomy, individuals have the freedom and the ability to carry on the training with little disturbance from a team leader. Therefore, it is easy and comfortable to make sound decisions that are beneficial to the whole team A team is like a small family that requires emotional support. This is what each individual needs from the team. It shows a sense of love and commitment to each other. It is always evident when a team member is not in a good position to perform well as per the set targets. An effective climate through emotional support assures the weak member and thus motivation to make improvements. Encouragement gives hope to someone who is losing hope in something. Through this, all trainees are meant to understand that they are working with a purpose to excel. Motivation varies depending on situations. By thinking positively about your trainees, you instill a form of magical power that influences them to behave in a nice way. This encourages them to perform well as compared to a situation when a trainer is always negative about the students. Students tend to follow the attitude and the kind of mind that the trainer gives to them. It is among the best way of motivating individuals to work. In most occasions, students tend to fail because they do not realize the energy in their efforts. As a trainer, it is always good to identify the little efforts that each student puts in the training and be positive in appreciating and praising an improvement. Exercising is an effective way of keeping fit.

Write a proposal up to 4,000 words in length to start a business of Assignment

Write a proposal up to 4,000 words in length to start a business of your choice - Assignment Example The business will be located along the busy Oxford Street on the western end of London city. The location has been found to be favorable for the business because it is very busy and is frequented by visitors including tourists drawn from all over the world. London city has also been found to be the best for this type of business because it is one of the fastest growing cities in the U.K., and presently has a population of over 8 million people according to the latest population census. The number is also projected to grow in the near future thereby favoring a coffee industry. The premises where the business is to be located has been acquired by owners through a ten-year lease but with the possibility of extension. The analysis of the location established that the business major competitor is found half a mile way. However, the owners intend to provide quality prepared products, services, and fair prices in order to build customer loyalty and compete favorably in the industry. London Coffee will strive to establish a peculiar and comfortable place where its customers can freely meet and socialize as they enjoy the best-prepared coffee in London. The environment will be established in a manner that promotes relaxation by ensuring that the rooms are well equipped with soft music plays at the background, as well as rooms fitted with television where customers can watch their preferred programs as they socialize. In addition, the restaurant through its teams of experts will ensure that customers receive the best customer experience and products of high quality. The owners also understand that the key to better performance lies on satisfaction level of its employees and other stakeholders. In this regard, London Coffee intends to invest significant part of its profits in areas that improves satisfaction of its workers. London Coffee also intends to ensure that the environment is adequately protected and concerned through its

The Economic Reality of Hybrid Vehicles Essay Example for Free

The Economic Reality of Hybrid Vehicles Essay The high price of gas at the pump has many Americans looking for alternates to their gas powered vehicles. One of the most popular option right now is a hybrid vehicle. The question that comes to mind is, are hybrid vehicles worth it? With record high gas prices due to the price of oil, most car owners out there have major concerns over their gas usage. Over the past ten years, the cost of gasoline has grown 250%! The price of oil has doubled since January of this year. The high prices of oil and gas is the driving factor for most of the people to trade their gas powered vehicles for hybrid vehicles. These vehicles promise to give consumers more mileage per gallon, the truth is that only a few vehicles currently in the market actually make any sort of financial sense. There are quite a few issues with buying hybrid vehicles, even with gas prices at more than $4 a gallon. First, these vehicles are much higher in price than their gas powered counter part so, the premiums attached to their price tags do not justify extra mileage that you get. In some cases car dealers are selling popular vehicles at much higher prices than MSRP. Second, there are no laws and regulations controlling the technology, price, and the mileage per gallon required out of these vehicles. Currently, there are hybrid vehicles in the market that offer an improvement of 3MPG to 18 MPG over their gas powered counterpart. This is a huge range that needs to be controlled. Third, the demand of these vehicles is driving the prices of the vehicles even higher, if people knew that it would take many years for fuel savings to pay back the hybrid premium on many models, the demand on these models would be much lower, driving the prices down. The solutions that I would like to propose is the government to work with auto manufacturers to develop a standard for hybrid vehicles. This standard should control the minimum mileage offered per gallon, and control the premium allowed to be charged by the manufacturers. There are vehicles in the market that offer only a marginal benefit over the gas powered vehicles and yet the manufacturers charge thousands of dollars premium. Background: Today people all around the world are facing unusually high oil price hikes. Oil has become so very expensive that people are trying all kinds of extreme measures to lower the price. The hike in price has affected every nation; the entire world is trying to find a way out of the soaring prices. Thanks to the oil prices, travel expenses have increased, not just flying being expensive, driving your own car is very expensive. The chart below shows a trend in oil prices since 1990 with some of the major events leading to this increase. Note that since January of 2007 the oil prices have increase by 162%. With high gas prices, hybrid cars are a more affordable option than ever in terms of gas mileage, but only a handful of hybrid cars make solid financial sense, and only for some consumers, according to a new study by NADAguides. com, a vehicle pricing and information website. Using current gas prices for ten major metropolitan areas, the company studied the number of miles needed to recoup the extra cost of buying a hybrid car over its gasoline-only counterpart. The study showed, for example, that a driver in Los Angeles, the city with the highest gas prices in the study, will break even about 18 percent faster than a driver in Houston, the city with the lowest gas prices, assuming both are driving the same miles. The study found that, even at todays high gas prices, only a handful of hybrid cars make financial sense for a consumer who buys a new car every five years or less and drives an average number of miles per year. Even at Los Angeles-area gas prices, there are only five hybrid cars that would allow consumers to recoup their additional investment before they sold the car, assuming they drive an average of 15,000 miles per year. In order of shortest time to break even, they are: 1. Toyota Camry Hybrid 2. Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid 3. Nissan Altima Hybrid 4. Toyota Prius 5. Honda Civic Hybrid Following is a chart of the top five hybrid cars with the greatest return on investment and the number of miles to break even in 10 major metropolitan areas at current gas prices. Issue: Even with gas prices at more than $4 per gallon, there are quite a few issues with buying hybrid vehicles. Issue 1: High Prices Hybrid vehicle prices are higher than their gas powered counterpart. The demand for these vehicles in the last year has increased a lot, increasing the prices even further. In some areas people are actually paying premium over MSRP and waiting for more than two years to get some vehicles. The price premium attached to the hybrid vehicles are just too great to be considered a cost savings relative to purchasing their gasoline counterpart. If people knew how long it would take them to pay off the increased premium the demand for the hybrid would be lower than what it is now, decreasing the prices. Issue 2: High Prices The second issue with the hybrid vehicles is that there are no laws and regulations controlling the technology, price, and the mileage per gallon required out of these vehicles. Currently, there are hybrid vehicles in the market that offer an improvement of just a few miles per gallon over their gas powered counterpart, yet the manufacturers are charging thousands more for the premium for a so called hybrid technology. The table shows the amount of time it would take a buyer to offset the hybrid premium by fuel savings. The table also shows the miles per gallon and annual gas savings. These numbers clearly show the need to have some regulations to control the miles per gallon offered and the amount of premium that is charged by the manufacturers. Let’s look at some vehicles: Starting with the worst of the bunch, the Lexus LS600H. The premium charges on this vehicle is about $19,000, yet it only offers about 20 to 22 miles per gallon. It would take almost a century to break even. The next worst seems to be the Saturn Aura which only offers an annual gas savings of $171. The best one seems to Toyota Prius, but this car is so popular these days that in some areas there is a wait list of two years. In areas where it’s available, the dealers are charging more than $5,000 over MSRP. Solution: ?Better education to customers about the ownership costs of a hybrid vehicle ? Government should offer incentives like tax break to buy hybrid vehicles ? Have a standard to develop hybrid vehicle to encourage mass production, bringing the vehicle prices to even less than current gas-powered vehicles ? Force auto makers to sell hybrid vehicles at no more than, about 10%, premium to the customers Conclusion: Reference: Web Site: Bespoke Investing Group http://bespokeinvest. typepad. com/bespoke/.

Exploring How Selections from The Best American Essays Essay Example for Free

Exploring How Selections from The Best American Essays Essay The selection of essays contained in The Best American Essays which highlight painful truths and confront undesirable social realities do not only paint a clear picture of the imperfect world we live in, but also serve as catalysts for change that we may be sorely in need of. The relevant knowledge conveyed by the essayists provide more than catharsis or a cleansing or anxiety-relieving purging effect. They have huge potential to elicit concrete ethical responses, notably new attitudes and mindsets that will eventually shape future action. The latter depends greatly, though, on how closely the readers identify with the painful truths or social realities contained in the literary pieces. Nonetheless, the superbly written essays merit close scrutiny or perusal, which should be enough, ideally, to jolt people to action. Exploring How Selections from The Best American Essays Can be Catalysts for Change Where does learning end and action begin? Can knowledge spur action? Mulling over the hard facts, undesirable societal realities or painful truths expressed in beautiful fluid prose by literary talents in insightful essays contained in The Best American Essays edited by David Foster Wallace, one question comes to mind: are the masterfully written pieces capable of spurring people to action? Offhand, the answer points to a resounding yes. Literary masterpieces, particularly the essays under study, have an immense potential to serve as catalysts for change. Any standstill or hindrance, however, for works of literature to elevate humankind in terms of heightened awareness and positive behavioral changes, may depend a great on the values and predispositions that the current crop of readers may have. It is a known fact that we, as humans, cannot escape pain as we go about our day-to-day lives. Just about everyone can identify with pain, but the natural tendency of the average person is to crawl into his comfort zone and not to ponder on negative or painful realities, much less do something about what they may have read. The painful truths, usually in the form of trying individual circumstances or clear societal harms, expressed by the most gifted writer in the most riveting prose may not always warrant the desired ethical response. The sad reality is, complacent people who glean useful insights from reading about painful truths expressed in clear and incisive essays may not budge, even if the ideas may stick around in the recesses of their minds for some time. Each person will also be relying on his own perception of truth, and this perception will most likely guide his future action. On the other hand, there are also those individuals who are inclined to strive to make life generally better, both for themselves and society-at-large. This latter breed of people brings to mind ancient Confucian teaching on doing the right thing at the right time. By following the dictum of choosing to do what is right and moral over ones self-centered interests, people who adopt a new way of thinking or do something about a vexing social truth expressed, for instance, in an essay like â€Å"What Should a Billionaire Give – and What Should You? By Peter Singer (Wallace, 2007, p. 266), make the writer’s efforts worthwhile. The sense of enlightenment, followed by change in one’s mode of thinking created by a well-written essay makes every ounce of investigative effort poured into it well worth it. There are also certain essays in the collection that highlight idiosyncrasies, or peculiar habits and traits, such as the piece about people with stage fright, or another dealing with the apex of sex childhood, or even the youth-oriented essay about a cellular phone ring tone that drifts into a discourse about adults’ tendencies as they age. They not only amuse and inform but also lead readers to adopt new ways of thinking and behaving. There are other clear-cut examples of works included in the collection that forcefully makes the case for a controversial issue that may spur action, notably â€Å"Loaded† by Garret Keizer, who explosively says, â€Å"I hope that I shall never have to confront anyone with my gun, but owning a gun has forced me to confront myself† (Wallace, 2007, p. 137) and â€Å"Rules of Engagement† by Elaine Scarry, who opined that â€Å"every act that carries us into neo-absolutist territory burs our vision†¦ and puts us at ever-accelerating risk of carrying out moral harms (such as the use of nuclear weapons) from which we may not soon recover† (Scarry, 2006, para. 12). There are likewise lighter topics explored in essays in the collection, such as â€Å"What the Dog Saw† by Malcolm Gladwell that focuses on how an egocentric person may not be emulated, while prescribing better ways of dealing with those around us. The various other essays, whether they serve as an earnest appeal for action or as subtle vehicles for behavioral change, providing stern warnings of things to come, derive much of their strength on the fact that what is presented is a shared experience, most of them culled from real-life circumstances and developments, forming painful realities that people must contend with. They may reflect hard truths about society’s past intermingling with the present, or they may point to the future, but the single thread running through the selected essays in The Best American Essays that the writers may want to put across is that their readers can do something about the painful truths or hard-to-bear facts presented therein. In essence, the essays under study embody a form of literature that â€Å"represents much more than a pristine chronicle of a particular time and place†¦As a flexible medium, literature (like the essays) allows the author to manipulate modalities of past and future, real and unreal to alter patterns of perception†¦ Analysis of these models can shed light on the events which actually took place, and on the scope of possibility for alternative outcomes (Werbach, 1991, Introduction section, para. 1). Thus, when people learn painful truths about themselves or society-at-large, how they act depends, to a large extent, on where their beliefs and principles are anchored, not to mention the resources at their disposal, which still does not negate the fact that great works of literature can be catalysts for change. References Wallace, D. (Ed. ). (2007). The best American essays. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Werbach, K. D. (1991). Literary models for alternative social development in Russia. Retrieved May 7, 2008, from http://werbach. com/stuff/thesis. html Scarry, E. (2006). Rules of engagement. Boston Review. Retrieved May 7, 2008, from http://bostonreview. net/BR31. 6/scarry. php

Globalization and International Security

Globalization and International Security This research paper discusses the issues of globalization and international security in their interdependency and interrelation. Challenges and obstacles of the efficient international security policy are considered. Globalization and international security are two directly proportional notions: the quicker is globalization, the stricter is international security. Introduction International security is nowadays closely connected with the notion of globalization. These two concepts seem to be the basic in todays political and economic situation. Thus, to start with, we should identify the notion of the international security. International security is the set of measures performed by countries and various international organizations aimed at the provision of the mutual safety in the world politics. This set of measures involves the implementation of both military actions and diplomatic treaties and agreements. Both types of security national and international are closely connected. As far as globalization offers its ways to ever-growing interaction of people and nations in almost all aspects of the human activities, as well as greater proliferation of cultures, political, economic and social activities, this results in greater rejection. This happens because of the discrepancies in some major points such as religion, for instance, or property issues. The brightest example of the globalization influence on international challenges is terrorist attacks, particularly on September 11, 2001, because these were the first, and they entailed the complete reorganization of global vision of the international security issue. We may state that these attacks were conditioned by the effects of increasing political globalization striving of the US to get the control over Iraq and improve its position as the world leader and power controlling all aspects of the world political order. Therefore, the present paper discusses the issue of the impact the globalization has on the international security and challenges posed by this influence. As far as globalization is rather broad and general term, we will use more specific aspects of globalization such as terrorism and struggle with it, international security in the countries of the Asia-Pacific region resulting from the dramatic economic growth of this region, and other challenges of globalization as associated with the necessity to improve the international security of these countries. General discussion International security and globalization Starting from the end of the twentieth century and continuing in the twenty first century, the globalization of different issues has provided both positive and negative effects. The positive effects of globalization imply closer and thus more effective cooperation of nations on various issues. These involve the sphere of political, cultural, economic cooperation. However, the same issues may have negative effects because in such way the collision of different views happens and this results in the conflict, as we can see on the example of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 different views on the same question who will rule have predetermined the outcome of the conflict: dramatic and terrifying event, which made nations shudder in anticipation of the same threat. Thus, for the most part the growth of terrorist attacks resulted in the desire of nations improve their international security. This may be accomplished in a number of ways: either through military actions, as it has been alread y mentioned, but this method is too radical, or through agreements, treaties and participation in international security programs or associations. Despite the fact that since the ending of the Cold War, which happened more than decade ago, there was an anticipation of the dramatic improvement in the sphere of international and national security. However, these hopes have failed, for new challenges have replaced the threat of nuclear weapon and civilization destruction. New challenges and issues of international security posed by the globalization include terrorism, various forms of extremism, separatism, growth of the crime rates, corruption, weapons of the mass destruction, regional conflicts, ecological catastrophes etc. Despite the fact that these challenges existed previously, in the globalization era they have achieved another sounding, because the world became much more mutually dependent and interconnected than earlier. Therefore, these challenges have begun to obtain a universal character rapidly, thus posing a threat to both national and international stability and security. The lives of many people of different nations have become influenced by these issues and challenges posed to the regional and international communities, and this influences continues its growth. As foreign minister of Russia Igor Ivanov stated, Proof of this is the wave of terrorist acts, unprecedented in scale and cruelty that has rolled from New York to the Island of Bali and Moscow (Ivanov, 2003). The key issue nowadays is not even the disclosure of the spheres where globalization has threatened the security of states and their citizens, but rather that far more interesting nowadays question of the way the effects of international insecurity may be challenged. Besides, it should be defined, why there are so much threats confronting humanity at the beginning of the twenty first century, and what measures can be taken in order to prevent or neutralize the ever-increasing number of new challenges to the peace and international threats. Globalization has become the greatest and the most influential constructor of the new international security picture. Its influence on the development and facilitation of the relations between nations in this basic sphere is considered to be rather contradictory. Thus, on the one part, globalization furthers rapid advancement of technological and scientific progress and facilitates ever-increasing communication among nations. Thus, if we look at the issue more closely, we will see that globalization to great extent assists humanity in provision of the potentiality for improvement of the quality of the international security and brings it to another level of development. It is due to the mutual dependence between nations in almost all spheres of the political, economic, social order, that helps to develop absolutely novel political approaches targeting the creation of the democratic multiparty organizations of controlling the international system of security and in such way targeting the reliable solution of the security problems. Nevertheless, the process of globalization has negative meaning, which is expressed through the intensification of the old challenges of international security with the simultaneous raising of new challenges and dangers. The part of outer factors in the evolution of nations and countries is increasing crucially. Due to the discrepancies in the economic and financial power, the interrelation and mutual dependency between nations becomes ever more unstable and disbalanced. Despite the fact that a minor group of leading industrialized countries almost obviously plays the part of the grounds for globalization, the rest of the countries stays aside of the financial economic advancements. As a consequence, the differences of economic and social advancement of the world grow intensively. According to Ivanov, the world economy may nowadays be separated into two types of zones: zones of growth and stagnation. Therefore, as Ivanov states, in 1998 ten leading states recipients of foreign investments accounted for 70 percent of their total amount, and countries with a low development level accounted for less than 7 percent (Ivanov, 2003). At the same time eminent politician claims that While in 1960 the incomes of the richest 20 percent of the worlds population exceeded those of the poorest 20 percent by 30 times, by 2002 that gap had trebled (Ivanov, 2003). All these problems: unemployment, low wages, social injustice, discrepancies in the realm of religion, culture, etc, contribute greatly to the issue of international security improvement. Certain steps have been already made in this direction, and they appear to be rather effective, but they will be discussed later in this paper. As for the mutual dependence of globalization and international security, we may state that we become the witnesses of the transference of negative globalization aspects to the countries of the Third World. The point is that it is harder for the Third World nations to defend themselves from the negative influence of globalization, but what is far easier to people living in developed countries is that they are protected to a certain extent with the economic and political power of their states. Consequently, the deceleration of globalization processes results in the breaches widening, which concerns the gaps in speed and direction of both economic and social advancement of whole regions of the world. It should be also mentioned that the very notion of the state power is changing in todays world. International security nowadays is provided with the help of not only military forces, as it has always been, but also with the help of the financial, economic, information and other resources which affect allies and opponents particularly comes to the foreground. There are certain factors which supposedly make it either easier or more complicated for countries to obtain access to the advantages of globalization, and which become ever more involved in the armory of security strategies. Thus, globalization and attempts to manipulate its processes are often used as tools of pressure in politics and economy. This peculiarity of the current state of affairs with international relations is emphasized in the UN report called The Impact of Civilization on Social Development. This report underlines that concern over globalization is partly due to the fact that the national policies of states are increasingly influenced by policies pursued outside their boundaries (UN report). Although this concerns national security policies, it is obvious that the international security policies are affected by the global politics and economy as well. As an example of such connection we can provide the example of the International Security Assistance Force although this mission was established by the UN Security Council, a lot of countries of the world responded the call for assistance. Thus, the United Nations Security Council has established ISAF International Security Assistance Force, which is the development and security mission in Afghanistan, led by NATO. The mission was established on December 20, 2001 (UNSCR) and involves approximately thirty five thousand people. The troops for this mission were contributed by thirty seven countries. The main target of International Security Assistance Force was to protect Kabul (Afghanistan) during the war in Afghanistan (started in 2001), and provide the security of the people from the Taliban, al Qaida. There are a lot of tools which are used to influence international security through the globalization processes. According to Ivanov, these tools of manipulation include the following: Investment and credit diplomacy, which benefits from the sharp need of developing nations in loans and investments of foreign capital. Information diplomacy, which targets the prevalence in the space of the world information; Political engineering, which implies the joint usage of different levers such as economic, political, and military ones for the construction of the required type of partners. In other words, states are ready to accept the conditions of the answer to both national and international challenges and issues posed from outside the boundaries of these states. In general, it should be particularly underlined that the process of new international processes started in the period after the Cold War ending, obtained to a great extent unchangeable and uncontrolled nature. Consequently, as it turns out, the situation has arisen which is filled with a great potential for the crisis outbreak, but which is simultaneously useless for the prevention or solution of international security issues collectively, meaning with the help of the whole world community. The deficiency of efficient mechanisms for control and monitoring of the actions and adapting the interests of a group of governments can be implemented as the pretence or evidential support of the statement that the purchase of weapons of mass destruction, even if its quantity is insignificant, becomes almost the only way to ensure security in international terms in todays unpredictable and unstable world. The risk and challenge of such situation is in the fact that threats to national and international security will exist until some serious measures are taken. Terrorism as the threat to international security One of the most crucial challenges the world community faces nowadays is the identification of the most sharply states problems of national and international security notions, which are often closely connected. The current attempts of the world community to fight these problems should be analyzed and the question should be answered as for the effectiveness of these attempts. As it has been already mentioned, the threat of the international terrorism nowadays is posed rather obviously and thus becomes the major threat to the security of the humanity. One of the most difficult things in fighting terrorism, according to Russian foreign minister Ivanov is that terrorists usually change their techniques and strategies of fighting for their aims, and they used to find ever new targets of their just retribution: The population of the major megalopolises on the planet and strategically important marine transportation of energy resources, computer systems that support the life of a modern state, the transportation, tourist and banking infrastructures of the world this is by no means a complete list of targets of attacks that have already happened and may happen in the future (Ivanov, 2003). The key reason for the current situation existence is that extremist leaders try to breed strife, and in such way manipulate others. The most awful thing is that usually this happens on the political level, and people dependant on the state or government suffer in such situation. Thus, terrorist leaders try to destabilize the current state of affairs in separate countries through the use of causing strife as a result of religious, cultural or national discord. Thus, they find weak sides and strike a blow influencing not those separate countries but the whole world community. The growth of international terrorism had entailed the necessity to cooperate in order to fight international terrorism. Thus, national programs aiming the interaction against terrorism were established within the frameworks of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Ivanov, 2003). Their target is to put an obstacle on the way of the ever-spreading terrorism, particularly in Central Asia (Ivanov, 2003). Therefore, we should always remember that the protection of rights of every citizen is the direct concern of every country, that is why it is necessary to develop new more efficient programs aiming fight against terrorism and other threats to international security. The United Nations continue to claim its opinion as for the effective struggle with terrorism. According to the UN, this struggle should be supported essentially by the international law. This problem may be solved with the help of the UN, which has always taken great interest and participated in the affairs of terrorism protection, persecution of terrorists or terrorist loyal people, assistance to those people who have suffered from the extremist activity. International security in Asia-Pacific region Asia-Pacific region may be considered the developing one, because countries of this region traditionally have underdeveloped economies, and inexpressive politics but nowadays situation seem to have been changed. That is why it is rather unexpectedly for the world community to evidence the fact that Asia-Pacific region has become the center of the international security, in other words, the Asia-Pacific is currentlyhome to a wide range of attempts at international cooperation on security issues (Goh, Acharia, 2007). It has not been until the beginning of the 1990s that considerable developments and improvements in international issues resulted in the essential changes in the international security of Asia-Pacific region. The most important events which contributed greatly to the development of this region and brought about the transformations in the sphere of international security were the end of the Cold War and the vagueness of the situation with the American strategy as for East A sia. Besides, this resulted from the advancement of China on both political and economic arena due to its dramatic economic growth. It was exactly that economic growth that opened China to the world as the prospective country leading in terms of the economic growth and bringing changes at all levels of the development. Another reason for the change was the crisis of Asian economy in 1997, which damaged the region significantly and doubted the efficiency of the international institutions and the existence of the programs on international cooperation in the sphere of security provision. The activities of the terrorists in Southeast Asia, which have incurred from the terrorist attacks in the USA on September 11, 2001, contributed greatly to the change of the approach concerning national, international and local security. These examples of globalization require further research as for the conflict solving in Asia-Pacific countries. Great variety of approaches to international and national security was considered and thus they have changed significantly since the times of the Cold War. In 1994 the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Regional Forum was established, and it was the peak of the new initiatives developing in the region at those times. As for the increase of international security between countries of the Asia-Pacific region, we should state that there is growing effort to provide the international security with the combined effort of ASEAN countries, Japan, South Korea and China. Besides, great number of organizations has appeared which has certain relation to the security, such as the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and others. As a rule, these cooperative efforts concern the issue of confidence establishing between Asia-Pacific countries. However, because of the differing conditions of these organizations operation, a lot of such efforts suffer from the deficiency of the mutual cooperation and lack of competition as well. Within the framework of the international security there are a number of questions which will be answered in the present paper. They include the concern over the APEC, the main issues of which were extended and thus achieved both greater role and importance on the political scene. So, the reason that has facilitated this transformation in goals of the APEC was the struggle against terrorism after the infamous event of 11 September. The issue of the terrorism in the era of globalization as the key concern of the world community has been considered in this paper. However, first we should answer the question how do relate those two notions of globalization and terrorism, and what are their common points. Therefore, we should mention that globalization has different layers, such as for instance political, economic, cultural and many other; and as a rule globalization is considered as the ever-growing interconnection between people and whole nations as a result of the progress and technol ogical advancements in communication facilities, transport, information technologies etc. It can be hardly doubted that the development of the communications, IT and transport as well as closer interaction between nations, has contributed greatly to the necessity of the international cooperation and security improvement. The reasons for the greater international danger may be waited from the side of international trade and economy on the whole, as far as money and power are closely interlinked and for the most part they are the reason for the majority of conflicts. Among other factors influencing international security is the institutional adaptability as stated by Goh and Acharia, who claim that it is the presence of or the presence of institutional mechanisms that could be adapted to respond to new challenges; in this case, the APECs leaders Summit was one such institution that provided a ready forum for the discussion of pressing security concerns among the regions heads of state (Goh, Acharia, 2007). They consider ASEAN and ARF to be as well corresponding in order to adopt and accommodate the supplementary frameworks of international security. However, these actions are considered to be the misuse of powers. For example, Association of Southeast Asian Nations nowadays significantly changes its previous orientation to international issues of security to the transnational ones. ASEAN Regional Forum has also adopted the program of dealing with international terrorism. According to investigation, performed by Goh and Acharia, the current standards of national interaction differ in various institutions. Thus, the most developed standards are those suggested by ASEAN, while those of Asia-Pacific institutions which are under the threat, are the standards of noninterference. It should be also mentioned here that legalization of the institutions of the Asia-Pacific region has obtained the formalized character. For instance, we can mention the the dispute settlement mechanisms created under the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), new rules for managing forest in ASEAN countries, the Declaration of Conduct (admittedly a weaker example) in the South China Sea, and moves to deviate from the consensus principle in ASEAN and the ARF (Goh, Arachia, 2007). These steps may be considered as the formalized operations of the improved and intensified international security. International Security before 9/11 and after it Thus, the infamous events of 9/11 became the turning point in the history of the international security. The thing is that, according to Khan, the discourse and direction of the international security issues and globalization processes has been changed. First of all, it should be mentioned that before that turning point the prevalent issues of the politic and economic concerns of the global community were the issues which concerned the geoeconomy (Khan, 2001). The majority of summits and international associations and organizations were concerned with the only question of globalization and humanitarian problems. However, nowadays geopolitics and other security issues have come to the foreground and the post-Cold War organizations determine further course of events, or as Khan put it, old language and institutions of the cold war are shaping our thinking about global politics (Khan, 2001). Khan evidences, that in the sphere of politics it had been decided prior to 9/11 that democracy is the only best way to arrange the most beneficial politics. In the sphere of economy, the World Trade Organization has established its own standards and thus different countries tried to raise their standards in order to comply with the new ones established by WTO. As for the social aspect, multinational corporations, for the most part American ones, influenced greatly the world popular culture. Therefore, it was the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, which changed everything. Globalization was accelerated, and this resulted in more or less free movement of capital, labor, technology and other material and immaterial resources across the boundaries of the countries. Thus, as far as globalization is the way to open all possible borders and make this flow across the borders free to the greatest extent, the main task of the international security, on the contrary, is to restrain this free flow and in such way secure and protect entrusted peoples and territories. Thus, one of the ideas after the terrorist attack that possessed political minds was the thought that to a certain extent this event was facilitated by the liberal policies of transactions across the borders. And as far as liberalism and democracy are interconnected notions, the position of democracy as the leading and the most appropriate political structure was undermined. The intensification of the international security thus implies the slowdown in the economy, because with harder control of the transactions the flow of capital will be slowed too. The most primitive but nonetheless still effective measures of international security are those which will prevent the free crossing of borders by terrorists: this includes stricter VISA provision, new regulations concerning border patrol and stricter policy of foreigners monitoring and control. On the governmental level national security is provided with the increase of international cooperation, which helps to ensure the legitimacy and reliability of information crossing the borders. Although this concerns national security first of all, in fact international security is also involved here, as far as nations cooperate with each other, exchange information and resources and this makes these countries vulnerable. That is why the efficient system of the international security monitoring is needed. As it has been already mentioned, the relation between globalization and international security is directly proportional, as far as it was globalization that facilitated the emerging of terrorists as the phenomenon of the world politics. However, globalization has been developing throughout many centuries, and nowadays it had just increased its pace. Of course, the most efficient measure of the security provision is at the same time the most radical and the most impossible to accomplish. The point is that it is absolutely impossible to close the borders and let each nation live without cooperation and interaction with other nations. It can be undoubtedly stated, that it is impossible to do. And Khan supports this idea stating that all advanced economies depend considerably on international trade 25% of US economy is dependent on international trade. The information technology sector in the US and increasingly in Europe now depends on technical expertise of global labor, particularly from India and China (Khan, 2001). Thus, complete separation and estrangement is impossible, and the only way to withstand the blow of terrorists is to intensify the international security policies and restrain the pace of globalization. Conclusion Consequently, in the present paper we have discussed the issues of the international security and the influence of globalization on the international security. As a result of the research, it became obvious that globalization and international security are closely connected. First of all this is true because they are directly proportional, i.e. with the acceleration of globalization the international security policies should be intensified. Despite the fact that for the most part the paper is dedicated to international security and related issues, in fact it is very difficult to differentiate the notions of national and international security, because again due to globalization these two concepts became mutually dependent and interrelated. Consequently, having discussed the abovementioned issues we may state that the impact of the globalization on the international security and challenges posed by this influence are rather various but in any case complicated. Using globalization as a general term, we have used more specific aspects of globalization such as terrorism and war against with it, international security in the nations of the Asia-Pacific region coming from the considerable economic growth of this region, and other challenges of globalization as connected with the necessity to improve the international security of these countries. As for the countries of Asia-Pacific region, their policies of international security has been developing and intensifying since the ending of the Cold War. ASEAN Regional Forum, ASEAN Free Trade Area, APEC and others are the decisions taken in response to the globalization advancement and international security improvement. Bibliography 1. Acharya, A. (2001). Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia. London: Routledge 2. Acharya, A. and E. Goh.(2007). Reassessing Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific: Competition, Congruence, and Transformation. The MIT Press 3. Blair, D. (2000). Security Communities the Way Ahead for Asia, InternationalHerald Tribune, April 21, 2000 4. Garofano, J. (2002). Power, Institutions, and the ASEAN Regional Forum: A Security Community for Asia? Asian Survey, 42 (3), 502-521. 5. Gilpin, R. (1987). The Political Economy of International Relations. Princeton: Princeton University Press 6. The Impact of Civilization on Social Development. (2004). UN report. 7. Ivanov, I. (2003). International Security in the era of globalization. Khatmandu: The Telegraph 8. Khan, M. (2001). Terrorism and globalization. Retrieved 19 Nov. 2007 from Glocal eye website: http://www.glocaleye.org/ 9. Maloney, S. M. (2005). Enduring The Freedom: A Rogue Historian In Afghanistan. Dulles: Potomac Books, Incorporated 10. Ruggie, J. G.. (1993). ed., Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form. New York: Columbia University Press 11. Tow, W. (2001). Asia-Pacific Strategic Relations: Seeking Convergent Security. New York: Cambridge University Press 12. Wesley, M. (2003). Mediating the Global Order: The Past and Future of Asia-Pacific Regional Organizations, in David Lovell, ed., Asia-Pacific Security: Policy Challenges Singapore: ISEAS

Cunstract, Intirnel, end Extirnel Velodoty :: dete, ivodinci, stady

Cunstract velodoty hes tu du woth istebloshong currict upiretounel miesaris fur thi cuncipts biong stadoid (Yon 2009, p. 40). Yon (2009), wrotis thet risierchirs cen ompruvi cunstract velodoty cunstract velodoty cen bi of maltopli suarcis uf dete os impluyid (troengaletoun uf dete), istebloshong cheon uf ivodinci, end rivoiwong thi ripurt woth thior onfurments (p. 41). In mekong sari thet uni cen drew e mienong end asifal onfirincis frum scuris un pertocaler onstramints uf dete cullictoun end tu dimunstreti thi eccarecy uf thior fondongs, Criswill (2013) elsu edvoci thi asi uf mimbir chickong end troengaletong dete (p. 201). Qaerm (2009) end Serqaeh (2008) buth asid sivirel dete suarcis (ontirvoiws, ducamints, midoe, end ontirnit) on thior stadois. Thi troengaletoun uf dete suarcis on thior stadois elluw fur sivirel ivodinci tu bi cullictid un thior cesis andir stady, cuncipts ur veroeblis wiri clierly end pricosily ixpleonid end upiretounelozid. Thos privintid oneccarecois end embo gaotois darong thi foild stady end elluwid fur lergi vulami uf dete tu bi cullictid end asid by buth onqaorirs. Bat buth ergaid thet dai tu tomi end fonencoel cunstreonts, thiy cuald nut rivoiw thi dete cullictid woth kiy onfurments tu currict eny mosteki, oneccarecois, clerofocetouns whoch tu sumi ixtint thrietinid thi velodoty uf thior stadois. 8.2 Intirnel Velodoty Thos rifirs tu istebloshong e ceasel riletounshop, whiriby cirteon cundotouns eri shuwn tu lied tu uthir cundotouns (Yon, 2009, p.40). Thi guel uf siikong tu isteblosh ceaseloty os muri ivodint on ixplenetury ur ceasel stadois rethir then discroptovi ur ixpluretury stadois (obod). Thos os dai tu thi lomotid cuntrul risierchirs hevi uvir ixtreniuas ur andisorebli veroeblis thet onflainci thi riletounshop bitwiin thi veroeblis. Estebloshong ceaseloty cen bi ompruvi darong thi dete enelysos stegi whiri thi risierchir niid tu du pettirn metchong, ixplenetoun baoldong, eddriss rovel thiurois end thi asi uf lugoc mudils (p.41). Buth Qaerm (2009) end Serqaeh (2008) stadois dod nut siik tu isteblosh ceaseloty bitwiin thior ondipindint end dipindint veroeblis. Buth stadois eri seod tu bi ixpluretury on netari. Fur ixempli, Qaerm (2009) stady siik tu discrobi thi meon ecturs end thi stretigois thiy impluyid tu pash thi dumistoc voulinci boll untu thi guvirnmint eginde fur ettintoun whiries Ser qaeh (2008) stady siik tu discrobi thi meon fecturs effictong thi omplimintetoun uf thi foscel dicintrelozetoun pulocy on Akaepim Suath dostroct uf Ghene. 8.3 Extirnel Velodoty Yon (2009) difonis ixtirnel velodoty es istebloshong thi dumeon tu whoch e stady’s fondongs cen bi ginirelozid biyund thi ommidoeti cesi stady (p.

Ethics in Reality TV Shows Essay -- Entertainment Media Television Pap

Ethics in Reality TV Shows â€Å"A man is standing on a swing, holding both metal lines that support it. Tied in chains around his waist and on each leg, he holds the 3 keys that are strapped to his wrist. He is to free himself after being submerged to the water outdoor with biting cold temperature as fast as he can to win the $50,000 prize beating the other contestants.† This is one of the scenes I saw a couple of weeks ago in the Reality TV show, "Fear Factor". Technology has greatly progressed specially in the area of multimedia communications of which television is one of them. From the very first black and white television drama, â€Å"The Queen’s Messenger† up to current full-colored â€Å"reality TV† show â€Å"Joe Millionaire†, a lot has happened. Below is the table of the different eras of TV Programming and their corresponding brief descriptions: Eras of TV Programming TV programming changed constantly to adapt to changing times and viewer preferences. Based on the time-frame, TV programming was divided into seven eras that constituted: †¢ Vaudeo (1948-1957): Era of sitcoms (situational comedy); lots of visual comedy effects; studio-bound technical requirements. †¢ Adult Westerns Era (1957-1960): Era of telefilms; first TV violence took its major participation; research companies could measure the number of TV audience including their ages and income brackets. †¢ Idiot Sitcom Era (early-late 1960s): Era of magic and slapstick comedies;start of James Bond and other action-oriented shows; first soap opera appeared. †¢ Relevance Era (late 1960s-1975): The period of TV renaissance that gave rise to quality TV; black actors were reintroduced to primetime starring roles and portrayal of women changed from housewives ... ...inello, Richard; (Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Incorporated, Sudbury MA 01776; ISBN: 0-76371-2698) p17 4. Media-Mediated Relationships: Straight and Gay, Mainstream and Alternative Perspectives;  ©1996; Fuller, Linda K.; (The Haworth Press, Inc.; ISBN: 1-56024-8769) 5. The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 1946-Present; 6th edition,  ©1995; Brooks, Tim and Marsh, Earle;(Ballantine Books, New York; ISBN: 0-34539-7363). pp. xv-xxi 6. The Elements of Moral Philosophy; 3rd edition  ©1999; Rachels, James; (McGraw-Hill Companies; ISBN: 0-07052-5609). pp. 20-36, pp.175-193. 7. Voyeur Nation Media, Privacy and Peering in Modern Culture;  ©2000; Calvert, Clay; (Westview Press; ISBN: 0-8133-6627-5) 8. Why we watch: The Attractions of Violent Entertainment;  ©1998; Goldstein, Jeffrey H.; (Oxford University Press; ISBN: 0-19511-8219)

Owning a Pet Essay -- Dog Cat Pets Essays Papers Personal Narrative

Owning a Pet Having a pet is a wonderful idea. Pets bring companionship, personality, and gut wrenching humor to households across the world. Having previously owned both a cat and a dog, and currently being without a pet, I began to think about getting a new furry friend. Born a dog lover, and bred into a cat lover, I had the difficult decision of choosing one of the two. When I was twenty-two years old, I answered an advertisement in the paper for free Labrador puppies. Driving up to the house, I saw all the little critters running around and having a ball of a time. I got into the pen with the pups, and finally decided on the shy runt who spent the majority of his time hiding under a board. I loved his personality and instantly knew he was the dog for me. I named him Charlie, and from that point on our master/dog relationship began. At the time I lived in a small two bedroom house with a fenced yard near Wanamaker road. Once Charlie was a full grown dog, he was the hit of the block. Charlie hardly ever barked, and was always just as happy to see the large groups of children exiting the school bus, as he was for me to arrive at home after work. Charlie had a bag full of tricks. My favorite was the Bob Dole, in which Charlie would sit and shake with his right paw, then I would give him the "Bob Dole" command, and he would immediately shake with his left paw. It was a riot, and netted Charlie about thirty pounds of treats in his lifetime. Vegas, on the other hand, was a full grown Persian cat that a friend was trying to find an adopted home for before she moved out of state. I had been around Vegas enough times to have a good idea of his personality, and I decided to help my friend out and give Vegas a try. Unlike C... ..., and none of it was as impressive or as interesting as the furry cat on the couch, not to mention the personal escort to and from the car to the door from the sweet, polite, black lab outside. But I can't really blame my guests, for Charlie and Vegas' cute faces and gestures worked their magic on me as well. And more times than naught, they got what they wanted in life. After losing Charlie in a car accident, and Vegas being returned to his rightful owner, I decided to get a new cat. A new cat would be more affordable, and fit in with my apartment house lifestyle. The ability to maintain a cats responsibilities while attending school, and spending weekends at work, is far less of a job than it would be for a new dog. The decision has proved worthwhile. Flea is doing well adapting to her new surroundings, and doing her best to avoid the lava life throws her way.

Women in the Military

Gender discrimination is a paradigm that has affected the role of women in the society depicting her as a minority contributor. Although the number of women in the military continuously increases this mishap is predominantly depicted because women are not allowed to engage in most combat duties as their counterpart male partners in most countries for example Germany, Spain and Italy. This further stimulates the physical and mental characteristics of men and women which argue against the support of women in the battle field. Women are perceived to be weaker than men because of their body structure which contains less dense skeletal systems thus have a higher possibility of fracturing or breaking their body parts. It is also argued that women’s bodies cannot handle the g-forces that are part and parcel of combat pilots therefore, less regarded in the aviation unit. Moreover, women are perceived as more prone to health risks than men thus highly vulnerable. A fact the submarine departments relies on to deny women career opportunities in this field (Adeboyejo 7-15). Women are also considered as psychologically incompetent because men lack the confidence of women performing similar duties as them thus mistrusts them. Men are likely to develop sexual relationship with the women thus affecting their performances. This also leads to unwanted pregnancies which incapacitates the role of the women. Furthermore, women are more likely to be captured by war enemies to be later subjected to dehumanizing acts such as sexual harassment and torture. Cultural practices and beliefs also perpetuate gender discrimination in military as these practices do not allow women to perform military tasks which are regarded as men’s role. Women who engage in this practice are considered as sexually promiscuous and therefore alienated from the community. Therefore, women are forced to prove their competence more than men to counter these allegations (Silva 937-960). This report aims at sharing the views and experiences of women in the military to enable the society to broaden its perspective and knowledge in an attempt of dispelling this paradigm and improve the situation for other younger women who desire to purse military as their career. History of Women in US Military The role of women in the US military was highly emphasized from the early 1900s though gender discrepancy took the toll of their activities and they were not allowed to engage in many tasks that military men were involved in. For instance in 1917 women were recruited as military nurses and doctors to tend to the injured men. Between 1940 and 1943 women were allowed to volunteer their services into the military forces where military curriculum was prevailed to their vicinity. However, they were given small ranks and duties such as being auxiliary corps and administrative officers while the men were their bosses. In the 1990s women were allowed to involve themselves with combat roles though were not accorded the opportunity to participate in the front lines. They were given small menial tasks such as carrying heavy war equipments and weapons to the front lines (Baker 12-238). Lately the role of women in the military have been further defined as a small percentage engages in the combat duties, submarine operations and aviation duties such as military pilots as bans that restricted women from flying aviation planes and ships have been lifted, for instance approximately 170,000 military women are among the US forces deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan (Baker 205). However, they still have to concentrate on proving their competence to the men and the traditional society (Baker 183-227). Hardships that Women in the Military Face Civilization has not totally eradicated this phenomenon as the appointment of officers is still not fairly done because women are treated as the minority which favors the men availing more appointment vacancies to them. Also the selection criteria for women is higher in comparison to that of men as conducted research depicts women in this field to be more learned than men. Therefore, women need to prove their confidence as there are very limited slots for their enrollment into the combat unit for instance in America approximately 15% of the women in the military force are allowed to serve in the combat unit (Mitchell 176). Women also still have to face sexual abuse and molestation from their counter parts while conducting their tasks. On the contrary this unjustly actions go unpunished as women who report such incidents are perceived as weak and thus cannot handle pressure and danger (Onesto para2-5). On the other hand the life of military women who report the incidents are made miserable while in the force by men who would go to extents of killing those women as a teaching guide to others to keep their mouths shut. For example Spc. Kamisha who was murdered in cold blood by her assaulter who she had previously reported three times (Creveld 85). Clearly these complaints in most occasions fall on deaf ears thus perpetuating the criminal offense. For instance in reference to the above case, Spc. Kamisha had reported her assaulter three times with no stern action being taken against him. This increases the vigor of women as they attempt to overcome this predicament and shun it while trying to prosper in the military field. Military women are also commanding for respect and recognition of their rights from the male counterparts, the society and traditional beliefs (Creveld 82-98). It is also quite evident that men in the military receive recognition and acknowledgment for their efforts and success unlike women who have to fight for this provision by demanding popularity in the force which prevails opportunities for them to prove their competence. Also the fact that women are supposed to serve their families and fully dedicate their lives to family responsibilities has increased the campaigns against the incorporation of women in the combat unit especially in countries where Muslim as a religion is prevalent. Therefore, women try to perform dual duties of establishing their responsibilities in the military forces and at home as mothers, in an attempt of proving to the society and men in the military of their capabilities in addressing the two responsibilities to earn the same treatment and respect accorded to man (Mitchell 256). The society has depicted two different stereotypes in the human race where men are portrayed as more analytical than women thus performs their duties better than women. In the event women in the military have to emanate more effort so as to be accorded the same treatment as men and allowed to engage in tasks that men are involved in, for instance submarine and aviation activities. Therefore, women have to maximize on their liberation from administrative and cultural constraints to portray their independence and unshakable attitude to discern this allegations and prove their abilities to work under pressure depicting analytical skills (Hogg para. 3-6). Current Status of Women in the US Military. In the past women were banned from participating into ground combat activities as they did not fulfill the criteria set in the physical test standards. Currently these standards have been re-evaluated and changed to allow more women to perform combat duties as men because of the high demand for military troops to perpetuate peace in Iraq and Afghanistan. In the event women have been allowed to perform their civic responsibilities however, women are still demanding equal civic promotions and acknowledgment. This initiative has still not been fully approved even though implementation steps have taken place. Critics of this move argue that this provision will disrupt the cohesion of men while on duty thereby decreasing their performance and concentration. Also, more women are being recruited into military camps and marine forces. Furthermore, the women are now being trained to defend themselves against sexual harassment and discrimination to avert the inhuman vices that surround them (Manning 7-12). Conclusion The society, government, ethicists and critics should aim at stipulating legislations that support military women to enable them to develop their careers by availing the same treatment accorded to men and in the event protect their rights. Therefore, military women should volunteer to share their experiences both the hard times and jovial moments to enable effective publication of the social injustices they undergo and thus perpetuate the eradication of gender discrepancies in the military, thereby allowing more female youths with the desire of perpetuating their civic responsibility as military agents to do so with ease and pleasure. Word Count: 1413 Annotated Bibliography Adeboyejo, Betsy. â€Å"Women in the Military Face Increasing Opportunity and Risk. † Crisis (15591573). 110. 3 (2003): 7-15. Adeboyejo outlines the increased opportunities for recruiting women in the military as they are can now engage in Marine Corps and aviation unit activities. However, the author stipulates the risks that women have to face while in the military and sends an outcry to the relevant authority challenging them to re-evaluate their policies and improve the working environment for women. Baker, Anni. Life in the U. S. Armed Forces: (not) Just Another Job. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. The author gives the history of women in the military and the development the career has undergone. She further elaborates the duties of both women and men in the military outlining the dedication they put to protect the residents of their countries. Furthermore, she explains that they need to be highly regarded and respected for the work they do is cannot be compensated. Anni also encourages the youths to consider military as their career prospectus because it will give them a chance to fulfill their civic duty and thus reduce the crime rate in the society. Creveld, Van. â€Å"Armed But Not Dangerous: Women in the Israeli Military†. War in History. 7. 1 (2000): 82-98. The author explains the hardships that women in the military face. He further liberates the practice of women always being armed because he describes it as a mechanism for protecting themselves from unethical behaviors that deny them their rights. Hogg, Jennifer. Military Women – Ready to Rock the Boat 18th, July, 2008. Women's Media Center. 22nd, May, 2008. < http://www. womensmediacenter. com/ex/071808. html>. Jennifer Hogg an author in the Women's Media Center published this document with the aim of outlining issues that curb the development of women. She discusses the role the society, government and traditional practices plays in advocating for gender inequality. She uses the military career for women as an example and elaborates what these women face while trying to prove their self worth. Manning, Lory. â€Å"Military Women†. Women's Review of Books. 21. 5 (2004): 7-12. The author studies the life of women who peruse military as their career. The conditions and attitudes that the women in the military display are well elaborated in the journal. The author also mentions the struggle that the women have done to improve the condition of their career which has had a positive impact on the perception of the society and government bodies. Mitchell, Brian. Women in the Military: Flirting with Disaster. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 1998. The author explains the kind of conditions women in the military undergo describing the career as a disaster. He outlines the hardships women have to dwell with everyday and the extent the mechanisms they have adopted to be able to shun the paradigm of gender discrepancy. Onesto, Li. Reality for Women in the U. S. Military: Rape in Uniform. 8th, December, 1996. Revolutionary Worker #886. 22nd, May, 2009. < http://rwor. org>. Onesto, Li a revolutionary worker wrote this piece with the aim of uncovering the sexual harassment, molestation and abuse women in the military face. She explains that when she was on duty the things she saw were horrific as women would get gang raped and not report the incident for fear of her life. Onesto says that those incidents broke her heart thus decided to air out the grievances that women in the military face in an attempt of attracting the attention of the relevant authority. Silva, Jennifer. â€Å"A New Generation of Women? : How Female ROTC Cadets Negotiate the Tension between Masculine Military Culture and Traditional Femininity. † The University of North Carolina Press 87. 2 (2008): 937-960. The author conducted interviews on, military women and men in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps to learn how women surpass the allegation aired out because of going against traditional practices and indulging themselves in masculine activities.